Abstracting Code Patterns

a.k.a. Dont Repeat Yourself

Lists

data List a
  = []
  | (:) a (List a)

Rendering the Values of a List

-- >>> incList [1, 2, 3]
-- ["1", "2", "3"]

showList        :: [Int] -> [String]
showList []     =  []
showList (n:ns) =  show n : showList ns

Squaring the values of a list

-- >>> sqrList [1, 2, 3]
-- 1, 4, 9

sqrList        :: [Int] -> [Int]
sqrList []     =  []
sqrList (n:ns) =  n^2 : sqrList ns

Common Pattern: map over a list

Refactor iteration into mapList

mapList :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
mapList f []     = []
mapList f (x:xs) = f x : mapList f xs

Reuse map to implement inc and sqr

showList xs = map (\n -> show n) xs

sqrList  xs = map (\n -> n ^ 2)  xs

Trees

Same “pattern” occurs in other structures!

data Tree a
  = Leaf
  | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a)

Incrementing the values of a Tree

-- >>> showTree (Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf))
-- (Node "2" (Node "1" Leaf Leaf) (Node "3" Leaf Leaf))

showTree :: Tree Int -> Tree String
showTree Leaf         = ???
showTree (Node v l r) = ???

Squaring the values of a Tree

-- >>> sqrTree (Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf))
-- (Node 4 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 9 Leaf Leaf))

sqrTree :: Tree Int -> Tree Int
sqrTree Leaf         = ???
sqrTree (Node v l r) = ???

QUIZ: map over a Tree

Refactor iteration into mapTree! What should the type of mapTree be?

mapTree :: ???

showTree t = mapTree (\n -> show n) t
sqrTree  t = mapTree (\n -> n ^ 2)  t

{- A -} (Int -> Int)    -> Tree Int -> Tree Int
{- B -} (Int -> String) -> Tree Int -> Tree String
{- C -} (Int -> a)      -> Tree Int -> Tree a
{- D -} (a -> a)        -> Tree a   -> Tree a
{- E -} (a -> b)        -> Tree a   -> Tree b

Lets write mapTree

mapTree :: (a -> b) -> Tree a -> Tree b
mapTree f Leaf         = ???
mapTree f (Node v l r) = ???

QUIZ

Wait … there is a common pattern across two datatypes

mapList :: (a -> b) -> List a -> List b    -- List
mapTree :: (a -> b) -> Tree a -> Tree b    -- Tree

Lets make a class for it!

class Mappable t where
  gmap :: ???

What type should we give to gmap?

{- A -} (b -> a) -> t b    -> t a
{- B -} (a -> a) -> t a    -> t a
{- C -} (a -> b) -> [a]    -> [b]
{- D -} (a -> b) -> t a    -> t b
{- E -} (a -> b) -> Tree a -> Tree b

Reuse Iteration Across Types

Haskell’s libraries use the name Functor instead of Mappable

instance Functor [] where
  fmap = mapList

instance Functor Tree where
  fmap = mapTree

And now we can do

-- >>> fmap (\n -> n + 1) (Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf))
-- (Node 4 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 9 Leaf Leaf))

-- >>> fmap show [1,2,3]
-- ["1", "2", "3"]

A Type to Represent Expressions

data Expr
  = Number Int            -- ^ 0,1,2,3,4
  | Plus   Expr Expr      -- ^ e1 + e2
  | Minus  Expr Expr      -- ^ e1 - e2
  | Mult   Expr Expr      -- ^ e1 * e2
  | Div    Expr Expr      -- ^ e1 / e2
  deriving (Show)

Some Example Expressions

e1 = Plus  (Number 2) (Number 3)    -- 2 + 3
e2 = Minus (Number 10) (Number 4)   -- 10 - 4
e3 = Mult e1 e2                     -- (2 + 3) * (10 - 4)
e4 = Div  e3 (Number 3)             -- ((2 + 3) * (10 - 4)) / 3 

EXERCISE: An Evaluator for Expressions

Fill in an implementation of eval

eval :: Expr -> Int
eval e = ??? 

so that when you’re done we get

-- >>> eval e1
-- 5 
-- >>> eval e2
-- 6
-- >>> eval e3
-- 30 
-- >>> eval e4
-- 10

QUIZ

What does the following evaluate to?

quiz = eval (Div (Number 60) (Minus (Number 5) (Number 5)))

A. 0 B. 1 C. Type error D. Runtime exception E. NaN

To avoid crash, return a Result

Lets make a data type that represents Ok or Error

data Result v 
  = Ok   v       -- ^ a "successful" result with value `v`
  | Error String -- ^ something went "wrong" with `message`
  deriving (Eq, Show)

EXERCISE

Can you implement a Functor instance for Result?

instance Functor Result where
  fmap f (Error msg) = ???
  fmap f (Ok val)    = ???

When you’re done you should see

-- >>> fmap (\n -> n ^ 2) (Ok 9) 
-- Ok 81

-- >>> fmap (\n -> n ^ 2) (Error "oh no") 
-- Error "oh no"

Evaluating without Crashing

Instead of crashing we can make our eval return a Result Int

eval :: Expr -> Result Int

• If a sub-expression has a divide by zero return Error "..."
• If all sub-expressions are safe then return Ok n

EXERCISE: Implement eval with Result

eval :: Expr -> Result Int
eval (Number n)    = ?
eval (Plus  e1 e2) = ?
eval (Minus e1 e2) = ?
eval (Mult  e1 e2) = ?
eval (Div   e1 e2) = ?

The Good News

No nasty exceptions!

>>> eval (Div (Number 6) (Number 2))
Ok 3

>>> eval (Div (Number 6) (Number 0))
Error "yikes dbz:Number 0"

>>> eval (Div (Number 6) (Plus (Number 2) (Number (-2))))
Error "yikes dbz:Plus (Number 2) (Number (-2))"

The BAD News!

The code is super gross

Lets spot a Pattern

The code is gross because we have these cascading blocks

case e1 of
  Error err1 -> Error err1
  Ok    v1   -> case e2 of
                  Error err2 -> Error err2
                  Ok    v1   -> Ok    (v1 + v2)

but look closer … both blocks have a common pattern

case e of
  Error err -> Error err
  Value v   -> {- do stuff with v -}

1. Evaluate e
2. If the result is an Error then return that error.
3. If the result is a Value v then further process with v.

Lets Bottle that Pattern in Two Functions

• >>= (pronounced bind)
• return (pronounced return)

(>>=) :: Result a -> (a -> Result b) -> Result b
(Error err) >>= _       = Error err
(Value v)   >>= process = process v

return :: a -> Result a
return v = Ok v

NOTE: return is not a keyword

• it is the name of a function!

A Cleaned up Evaluator

The magic bottle lets us clean up our eval

eval :: Expr -> Result Int
eval (Number n)   = Ok n
eval (Plus e1 e2) = eval e1 >>= \v1 ->
                      eval e2 >>= \v2 ->
                        Ok (v1 + v2)

eval (Div e1 e2)  = eval e1 >>= \v1 ->
                      eval e2 >>= \v2 ->
                        if v2 == 0
                          then Error ("yikes dbz:" ++ show e2)
                          else Ok (v1 `div` v2)

The gross pattern matching is all hidden inside >>=

Notice the >>= takes two inputs of type:

• Result Int (e.g. eval e1 or eval e2)
• Int -> Result Int (e.g. the processor takes the v and does stuff with it)

In the above, the processing functions are written using \v1 -> ... and \v2 -> ...

NOTE: It is crucial that you understand what the code above is doing, and why it is actually just a “shorter” version of the (gross) nested-case-of eval.

A Class for >>=

The >>= operator is useful across many types!

• like fmap or show or toJSON or ==, or <=

Lets capture it in a typeclass:

class Monad m where
  -- (>>=)  :: Result a -> (a -> Result b) -> Result b
     (>>=)  :: m a      -> (a -> m b)      -> m b

  -- return :: a -> Result a
     return :: a -> m a

Result is an instance of Monad

Notice how the definitions for Result fit the above, with m = Result

instance Monad Result where
  (>>=) :: Result a -> (a -> Result b) -> Result b
  (Error err) >>= _       = Error err
  (Value v)   >>= process = process v

  return :: a -> Result a
  return v = Ok v

Syntax for >>=

In fact >>= is so useful there is special syntax for it.

Instead of writing

e1 >>= \v1 ->
  e2 >>= \v2 ->
    e3 >>= \v3 ->
      e

you can write

do v1 <- e1
   v2 <- e2
   v3 <- e3
   e

or if you like curly-braces

do { v1 <- e1; v2 <- e2; v3 <- e3; e }

Simplified Evaluator

Thus, we can further simplify our eval to:

eval :: Expr -> Result Int
eval (Number n)   = return n
eval (Plus e1 e2) = do v1 <- eval e1
                       v2 <- eval e2
                       return (v1 + v2)
eval (Div e1 e2)  = do v1 <- eval e1
                       v2 <- eval e2
                       if v2 == 0
                         then Error ("yikes dbz:" ++ show e2)
                         else return (v1 `div` v2)

Which now produces the result

>>> evalR exQuiz
Error "yikes dbz:Minus (Number 5) (Number 5)"